Q.1 Select a secondary school in your area and prepare a report about the
performance of five teachers using performance appraisal process and different
techniques used for this purpose
Answer:
Performance Appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the performance of employees and to
understand the abilities of a person for further growth and development. Performance
appraisal is generally done in systematic ways which are as follows:
- The supervisors measure the pay of employees and compare it with targets and
plans.
- The supervisor analyses the factors behind work performances of employees.
- The employers are in position to guide the employees for a better performance.
Objectives of Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal can be done with following objectives in mind:
- To maintain records in order to determine compensation packages, wage structure,
salaries raises, etc.
- To identify the strengths and weaknesses of employees to place right men on right
job.
- To maintain and assess the potential present in a person for further growth and
development.
- To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related status.
- To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related status.
- It serves as a basis for influencing working habits of the employees.
- To review and retain the promotional and other training programmes.
Performance appraisal process:
The performance appraisal process is one that few look forward to. However, understanding
the process can help managers and employees conduct a more fruitful appraisal. At the
University of Texas at Dallas, managers are taught that "A chief purpose of any performance
appraisal program is employee development. This goal is accomplished by helping the
employee to do a better job and by developing in the employee the knowledge and skill to
meet the future needs of the work unit and the institution."
Establish a File
For managers to be effective and help employees develop skills and capabilities, it’s
essential to begin the performance management process on the employee's first day.
Create a file for each employee and record the accomplishments, areas for improvement
and regular feedback throughout the year.
Provide Regular Feedback
Regular feedback should occur at least once each quarter and more frequently if an
employee needs encouragement or motivation. According to the American Society for
Clinical Laboratory Science, “The performance management process starts with employee
planning and ends with an evaluation of employee progress. Managers and employees
should meet to discuss planning and goals throughout the year. If possible, formally sitting
down with your supervisor or manager on a quarterly basis is optimal. The process, at its
best, is a collaborative one which should add value for both the employee and the
employer.” Employees thrive on feedback because it ensures they are performing job duties
and responsibilities according to the company’s expectations. The feedback can be given in
a casual manner, provided the topic of the feedback is suitable for a casual meeting. Always
document any feedback you provide to employees, even if it’s just to say “great job.”
Discipline Issues
Throughout the year, an employee may engage in behavior that warrants disciplinary action.
Your company’s procedure for addressing discipline should include a requirement to document every disciplinary action taken. All disciplinary issues and improvements are
taken into account during the annual performance appraisal meeting.
Management by Objectives
Management by objectives, or MBOs, is another step in the performance appraisal process
used for some employees who have defined goals and steps to achieve each goal. These
MBOs really should be reviewed quarterly to track progress or redefine the goal if neither of
you see enough progress. MBOs are also particularly helpful to employees who are on a
professional career track within your business.
Conduct the Appraisal Meeting
As the time nears for scheduling the appraisal meeting, begin preparing the performance
appraisal document. Many companies have lengthy forms that require managers to record
relatively detailed information about the employee’s performance in all areas of the job.
Performance is rated in areas such as job proficiency, interpersonal relationships,
communication skills and aptitude. Some employers consider employee self-evaluations. In
these cases, the employee should prepare her comments about her performance during the
past year. Both the manager and the employee should feel comfortable during the appraisal
meeting. Tension will just make the meeting agenda much more difficult and uncomfortable
than it needs to be.
Follow Up Action
After the performance appraisal meeting, there will likely be follow up matters such as
discussing areas for improvement, establishing goals for the next year and confirming the
employee's salary or wage increase. In addition, the manager and employee may schedule
another time to discuss unresolvable issues that arise during the performance appraisal
meeting.
Different techniques used for:
1. Ranking Method
The ranking system requires the rater to rank his subordinates on overall performance. This
consists in simply putting a man in a rank order. Under this method, the ranking of an
employee in a work group is done against that of another employee. The relative position of
each employee is tested in terms of his numerical rank. It may also be done by ranking a
person on his job performance against another member of the competitive group.
2. Forced Distribution method
This is a ranking technique where raters are required to allocate a certain percentage of
rates to certain categories (eg: superior, above average, average) or percentiles (eg: top 10
percent, bottom 20 percent etc). Both the number of categories and percentage of
employees to be allotted to each category are a function of performance appraisal design
and format. The workers of outstanding merit may be placed at top 10 percent of the scale,
the rest may be placed as 20 % good, 40 % outstanding, 20 % fair and 10 % fair.
3. Critical Incident techniques
Under this method, the manager prepares lists of statements of very effective and
ineffective behaviour of an employee. These critical incidents or events represent the
outstanding or poor behaviour of employees or the job. The manager maintains logs of
each employee, whereby he periodically records critical incidents of the workers behaviour.
At the end of the rating period, these recorded critical incidents are used in the evaluation
of the worker’s performance. Example of a good critical incident of a Customer Relations
Officer is : March 12 - The Officer patiently attended to a customer’s complaint. He was very
polite and prompt in attending the customers problem.
4. Checklists and Weighted Checklists
In this system, a large number of statements that describe a specific job are given. Each
statement has a weight or scale value attached to it. While rating an employee the
supervisor checks all those statements that most closely describe the behaviour of the
individual under assessment. The rating sheet is then scored by averaging the weights of all
the statements checked by the rater. A checklist is constructed for each job by having
persons who are quite familiar with the jobs. These statements are then categorized by the judges and weights are assigned to the statements in accordance with the value attached
by the judges.
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Q.2 How financial audit and academic audit are different? Explain your answer
keeping in mind different aspects of audit.
Answer:
Subjecting your business for regular third-party review and evaluation helps your small
business successfully evolve. External reviews allow you to observe problems within your
business that you might not see because you are in the midst of the business. Whether for
financial or academic purposes, audits examine activities against set criteria and standards.
Successful audits must be independent, must have a set method and must be documented.
Financial Audit
Financial audits evaluate financial statements and provide third-party opinions on the
truthfulness of these statements. Auditors test various claims against relevant accounting
standards to provide this opinion. All financial statements are based on these accounting
standards. The assertions include accuracy of the numbers, existence of the assets and
liabilities, completeness of the numbers and actual occurrence of transactions. In short,
auditors check the entire accounting process through which these numbers are placed on
your financial statements.
Academic Audit
Academics are short-term efforts, and their ultimate goal is to create unique outputs for
your business. Academic audits, therefore, examine the true status of academic cost,
schedule, scope and quality. They identify issues and problems that may hinder your
business’ academic development, and then provide solutions to improve the performance
of that academic. First, academic auditors identify the success parameters and then
interview the core academic members and relevant investors. Next they analyze the issues, challenges and opportunities using information they gained from interviews and academic
documents. Finally, auditors develop reports that they present to management.
Main Differences
The differences in financial audits and academic audits are in their objectives. While financial
audits seek financial statement accuracy, academic audits seek to unearth and resolve
academic problems. The methods used in either case also are largely different. Unlike
academic audits, financial auditing uses a range of substantive procedures. Additionally,
businesses submit to financial auditing activities because of statutory or regulatory
pressures. However, business owners, managers and stakeholders initiate academic audits
to ensure that academic activities remain on track.
Other Differences
Financial audits are mainly close-ended exercises. This means that auditors focus only on
verifying the financial information. Conversely, academic audits are open-ended,
consultative exercises. Academic auditors act as consultants who try to add value to
academics and business by suggesting improvements and ways to close gaps. Depending
on the academic type, the auditor must have relevant expertise and skills to provide
meaningful output. For example, a academic auditor who has no knowledge of
trigonometry and design might have difficulties performing academic audits of the world’s
tallest buildings.
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Q.3 Suppose you are working as head teacher, how will you used the authoritarian
and developmental approach of supervision in your school?
Answer:
In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more
attention has been given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig & Song, 2008). The
Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleon's Regime at the end
of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century
(Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin & Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801
(Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms "inspector'' and "inspection" are still being
used in various developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK),
United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal,
Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007).
Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency
and accountability in the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of
inspection and supervision are used by different countries in different ways. As outlined by
Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the assessment and evaluation
of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on providing
guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional
development and improvement in their teaching- learning process. Nevertheless, since the
demand of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased
from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and preferring the term
"supervisor" over that of "inspector". According to Grawue (2007), some countries have
recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses "education methods advisor",
and Uganda "teacher development advisor".
The concepts of "supervision" and "inspection" have been changed frequently in Ethiopian
education system and the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42,
educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in
the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to
supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that:
Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational
and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name
changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose
and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12)
From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational
management. According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District
(Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school level is practiced by
principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers.
However, since the Woreda is the lowest administrative level and had a direct contact with
schools, more practical support and guidance are expected from the assigned supervisors at
this level. As it is clearly mentioned by the Educational Management, Schools' Organization,
Finance, and Community Participation Guideline (MoE, 2002), supervisors have the following
key responsibilities:
Ensuring whether teacher -student relationship is healthy and democratic, teachers are
properly executing their tasks, education is based on the needs of students, the relation
between schools and community, mobilizing community, ensure the existence of help and
respect sprit between teachers and students, provide professional support, follow up and
training for teachers. (p. 30-32)
According to Blasé and Blasé (1998), although many supervisory approaches are
collaborative in nature, for long time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively
as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described supervision as a "ritual they
[supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without much
consequence" (p. 203). This author continued that "today, supervision as inspection can be
regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in
contemporary education" (p. 204). He explained that though functioned for a considerable
span of time, this type of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where
they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled. Supporting
this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, "because of this, teachers are unaccustomed
to the sort of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial
assistance are coming in to use" (p.1).
It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed
completely because supervisory authority and control are essential for professional
development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as "much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded" (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to
differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a
formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007).
Poole (1994) stated that "instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes
collegial examination of teaching and learning" (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the
supervision process plan and implement a range of professional growth opportunities
designed to meet teacher's professional growth and educational goals and objectives at
different levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is "a summative process that focus
on assessing the competence of teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or
judgment of an individual's professional competence at specific time" (Poole, 1994, p. 305).
The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should go hand in hand
(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers' professional
growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness
(Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990).
The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing,
checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are
categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, selfreflection,
professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso & Firth, 1990; Clarke, 1995;
Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing
different supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also
important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
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Q.4 Compare different models of supervision and suggest any one model keeping
bin view the Pakistani situation, justify your suggestion with strong reasons.
Discuss Kadushin’s model of supervision and give your opinion about this model.
Would you like to suggest any other model if yes, justify it?
Answer:
Theories and models serve to help us make sense of and organize information. Operating
within a model grounds our practice and helps practitioners with intentionality and
consistency. Supervisors should outline their model of supervision, discuss how decisions
regarding the focus of supervision are generally determined, discuss their expectations of
the supervisee, and how the process will be evaluated for effectiveness. Often this
information is included in a Professional Disclosure Statement that is presented to the
supervisee. Supervisees should take the opportunity to discuss their general preferences for
receiving feedback, their methods of learning, their expectations of support and critical
feedback, and question what to do if they perceive that something is not going effectively
in supervision. This discussion, at the beginning and throughout the course of the
relationship, may aid in facilitating a positive relationship that leads to counselor
development.
Training in theory and models of supervision increases supervisor knowledge, and provides
guidance for how to direct student learning, as well as how to understand the supervisee
experience and development.
In general there are four types of clinical supervision models:
- Psychotherapy-based models
- Developmental models
- Social-Role models
- Eclectic or Integrationist models/Supervisor’s Model in Practice
While it is acknowledged that there are models of supervision that are based on theories of
psychotherapy, Bernard and Goodyear (1998) state that an indicator that supervision is
coming into its own is that there is an increase in models that were developed independent
of psychotherapy. Therefore, this section will focus on the developmental and social role
models of supervision.
Supervision can be found in the growth of charitable social agencies in Europe and North
America during the nineteenth century. It involved the recruitment, organization and
11
oversight of a large number of volunteers and, later, paid workers. The volunteers were
commonly known as ‘visitors’. Their task was to call on a small number of families to offer
advice and support. The main concern was to foster self help, and the adoption of ‘healthy’
habits and behaviours. In addition, visitors were also often in a position to access limited
funds via their agencies, although such monies were only given after a careful investigation
of the family’s circumstances. In other words, a decision had to be made as to whether they
were ‘deserving’. (See, for example, the discussion of Maude Stanley, girls’ clubs and district
visiting and ellen ranyard, ‘bible women’ and informal education).
The person assigning cases, organizing work and taking decisions on behalf of the agency
was basically an ‘overseer’ – and hence the growing use of the term ‘supervisor’. (In
Latin super means ‘over’, and vidêre, ‘to watch, or see’). As Petes (1967: 170) has pointed out,
traditionally, part of the overseer’s job was to ensure that work was done well and to
standard. This can be viewed as an administrative task. However, overseers also had to be
teachers and innovators. These were new forms of organization and intervention: ‘standards
were being set, new methods developed’ (op cit.).
In these early forms – and especially in the work of the Charity Organization Society in the
USA and UK – the present functions and approaches of supervision were signalled. As
thinking and practice around casework became more sophisticated, especially through the
work of pioneers such as Mary Richmond (1899; 1917; 1922), and demands for more paid
workers grew, so supervision became more of an identified process. For example, books on
the subject began to appear – e.g. Jeffrey R. Brackett’s Supervision and Education in
Charity (1904).
Also, the hierarchical position of the supervisor (or paid agent) was revealed:
While the ‘paid agent’ acted as supervisor to the volunteer visitor, the paid agent
‘supervisor’ was himself supervised by the district committee, which had ultimate authority
for case decisions… The paid agent supervisor was then in a middle-management position,
as is true of supervisors today – supervising the direct service worker but themselves under
the authority of the agency administrators. (Kadushin 1992: 6)
12
It is this hierarchical and managerial idea of supervision that tends to permeate much of the
literature in social work.
Kadushin’s model of supervision
It is at this point that Alfred Kadushin’s discussion of supervision in social work becomes
helpful. He goes back to earlier commentators such as John Dawson (1926) who stated the
functions of supervision in the following terms:
Administrative – the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work, co-ordination
of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and smooth-running
office;
Educational – the educational development of each individual worker on the staff in a
manner calculated to evoke her fully to realize her possibilities of usefulness; and
Supportive – the maintenance of harmonious working relationships, the cultivation of esprit
de corps. [This is Kadushin’s (1992) rendering of Dawson 1926: 293].
It is a short step to translate these concerns into the current language of the ‘learning
organization’. As Salaman (1995: 63) argues, managers must have a concern for both
performance and learning.
[T]he essentially managerial aspects of managers’ work is their responsibility for monitoring
and improving the work of others; their managerial effectiveness is determined by their
capacity to improve the work of others. if managers are not able to make this contribution,
then what value are they adding? The only ultimate justification of managers’ existence is
the improvement of the work of their subordinates. If managers fail in this way they fail as
managers.
In this way managers are expect to develop relationships and environments that enable
people to work together and respond to change. Such ‘joint performance’ involves having
common goals, common values, the right structures, and continuing training and
development (Drucker 1988: 75).
I want to concentrate on how managers approach supervision – later I will suggest that the
threefold education/administration/support model also works for ‘non-managerial’
supervision. In our experience of management some of us will have found that all three
elements were present – and were acknowledged by the parties involved. As managers we
may well express a concern for the well being of those we are responsible for; we may also
attend to gaining clarity around the tasks to be achieved (and how they are to be
undertaken). In addition, we may have a care for staff development. We may well explore
particular incidents and situations and seeing how they could be handled in different ways.
There may also be situations where these elements are not all present. For example, we may
have slipped into a strong task orientation with a particular worker. Or, and this is quite
common, we may focus rather too strongly on the support side. In voluntary and not-forprofit
organizations it is not uncommon to find that staff require a good deal of ‘working
with’!
I find it helpful to think of the three elements as inter linked (or as overlapping). They flow
one into another. If we are to remove one element than the process becomes potentially
less satisfying to both the immediate parties – and less effective. It is easy to simply identify
managerial supervision with administrative supervision.
Administration
Kadushin tightens up on Dawson’s formulation and presents his understanding of the three
elements in terms of the primary problem and the primary goal. In administrative
supervision the primary problem is concerned with the correct, effective and appropriate
implementation of agency policies and procedures. The primary goal is to ensure adherence
to policy and procedure (Kadushin 1992: 20). The supervisor has been given authority by the
agency to oversee the work of the supervisee. This carries the responsibility:
… both to ensure that agency policy is implemented – which implies a controlling function –
and a parallel responsibility to enable supervisees to work to the best of their ability. (Brown
and Bourne 1995: 10)
It also entails a responsibility not to lose touch with the rationale for the agency – ‘to
provide a first-class service for people who need it (or in some cases are required to have it,
in order that they or others may be protected from harm)’ (op cit.).
Q.5 Write your understanding about:
Supervising Physical Structure
Answer:
A supervisor’s role in human resource management is that of setting the strategic course for
the department to improve company performance. The supervisor can use HR to create
levers to influence how workers focus their energy and select workers with skills and
interests aligned with the company’s goals.
Guiding Employee Selection Criteria
A supervisor must set the strategic course of the human resource department. This means
setting the correct criteria for selecting staff. The supervisor should match your small
business's core needs to the skill set of the staff. Not every skill needed by your company
will be a strength of each employee, but on a cumulative basis the supervisor must attempt
to have employees that cover some of the areas of expertise so that every major key
function can be met. This is harder for soft skills such as team building, facilitation and
influencing key constituents.
Setting Incentives
Incentives are another crucial function of human resources. Employees may have different
incentives, whether pay, promotion, perks or flexibility, and there may be different degrees
to which each employee's performance is influenced by those incentives. The supervisor
must tailor incentives so that they are in line with long-term company goals. This will have a
bonus effect in that, over time, employees who value these incentives will join and stay at
the company and employees who do not will leave. The incentives must be clear, and
meeting them must be measurable and within an employee’s control.
Making Staff Carry Out Policy
A supervisor must make sure the human resource staff is performing correctly. The
supervisor must understand the staff’s jobs well enough to know what is good, bad or
average performance by the staff. The supervisor must understand that loyalty is often a
function of how well or how slighted an employee feels. This is sometimes related to
benefits and other times related to the performance evaluation process. A supervisor must
make sure the staff acts in a professional and consistent way so employees feel the
workplace is a fair environment.
Recommending New Approaches
A supervisor should recommend new policies to improve not just the human resource
department's performance but also the company’s performance. This could be in the realm
of redesigning the incentive system to reward risk taking. Conversely, the supervisor could
implement a cost-cutting reward system where employees share in the benefits of the costcutting
effort they suggest. Finally the supervisor can facilitate an environment in which
company leadership encourages excellence and loyalty by revamping policy to match what
the employees value with what benefits and compensation the firm provides.
2. Supervising School Environment
Answer:
Through the effective supervision of instruction, administrators can reinforce and enhance
teaching practices that will contribute to improved student learning. By skillfully analyzing
performance and appropriate data, administrators can provide meaningful feedback and
direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on the learning that occurs in each
classroom. Because student learning is the primary function of the schools, the effective
supervision of instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator. If schools
are to provide equal access to quality educational programs for all students, administrators
must hold teachers accountable for providing an appropriate and well-planned program.
These programs include a variety of teaching strategies designed to meet the diverse needs
of all students in our complex society.
This reviews areas of focus for teacher evaluation, the components of effective teaching,
some basic strategies and procedures for data gathering and conferencing, and steps
administrators should consider in the effective preparation of conference memorandums
and letters of reprimand. Approaches that are discussed which differ from existing
procedures in the district should be used to stimulate discussion and prompt a review of
current practices. This process may lead to a restructuring of practices and procedures that
could result in the enhancement of student learning.
Teacher Evaluation
To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators must be
skilled in these areas: (a) what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and analyze classroom
observation information and other data, and (c) how to translate the results of observations
and the summary of data into meaningful conference feedback that guides and encourages
teachers to improve instruction. Expectancies for teacher performance were enacted by
California State Senate Bill 813 and are included in Section 44662 of the California Education
Code. This section requires the governing board of each school district to establish
standards of expected pupil achievement at each grade level in each area of study. Under
this code, evaluation and assessment
of certificated employee competency are required in four areas. These include: (1) the
progress of pupils toward the district-adopted standards, (2) the instructional strategies and
techniques utilized by the teacher, (3) the teacher's adherence to curricular objectives, and
(4) the establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning environment. Although this
code section prohibits the evaluation and assessment of certificated employee competence
by the use of published norms established by standardized tests, it does give the board of
education of each district authority to adopt additional evaluation guidelines and criteria. In
addition, the school board in each district is required to establish and define job
responsibilities of other certificated non-instructional personnel (supervision or
administrative positions) whose responsibilities cannot be evaluated in the aforementioned
four areas.
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